Table 2 Effect of hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives on obesity and adipocyte dysfunction

Cinnamic acid

3 T3-L1 adipocytes

- Stimulated the secretion of adiponectin and the phosphorylation of AMPK in 3 T3-L1 adipocytes and therefore improves insulin sensitivity

[123]

- Cinnamic acid (30 mg/kg/day) for 7 weeks

- The administration of CA to HFD-fed rats reduced the body weight gain.

[122]

- HFD diet fed Male Wistar rats

Coumaric acid

3 T3-L1 adipocytes

- Inhibition of adipogenesis in 3 T3-L1 adipocytes.

[124]

- o-coumaric acid inhibited GPDH activity and the expression of PPARγ, C/EBPα and leptin and then up-regulated expression of adiponectin.

3 T3-L1 adipocytes

- p-Coumaric acid inhibited TNF-α-induced changes in levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in 3 T3-L1 adipocytes.

[125]

- p-Coumaric acid increased the secretion of adiponectin, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione S-transferase (GST) in TNF-α-treated 3 T3-L1 adipocytes

Wistar rats fed a high fat diet.(100 mg/kg)

- Decreased body weight, liver organ, and adipose tissue weights of peritoneal and epididymal fat pads.

[12]

- Decreased hepatic triacylglycerol and cholesterol levels.

- Enhanced the levels of glutathione (GSH), GSH peroxidase (GPx), GSH reductase (GRd), and GSH S-transferase (GST) in the hepatic tissue

Ferulic acid

high fat diet-induced obesity in mice

- Oryzanol or ferulic acid significantly suppressed the weight gain of the high fat diet-induced obesity in mice.

[97]

- Ferulic acid is more effectively suppressed the weight gain compared to oryzanol.

Caffeic acid

3 T3-L1 adipocytes

- Inhibitory effects on increased glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) activity and an increased insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1).

[126]

- Reduced the levels of leptin, resistin, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha.

High-fat diet induced obese mice (0.02 % CFA of diet (wt/wt) dose)

- Lowered body weight, visceral fat mass and plasma leptin and insulin levels.

[15]

- Inhibited fatty acid synthase, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase and acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase activities.

- increased fatty acid β-oxidation activity and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α expression in the liver

Chlorogenic acid

High-fat diet induced obese mice (0.02 % CGA of diet (wt/wt) dose)

- Lowered body weight, visceral fat mass and plasma leptin and insulin levels.

[15]

- Inhibited fatty acidsynthase, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase and acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase activities.

- Increased fatty acid β-oxidation activity and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α expression in the liver.

Streptozotocin (STZ)–nicotinamide (NA)-induced type 2 diabetic rats CGA (5 mg/kg b.w.)

- Decreased plasma and tissue triglycerides, free fatty acids.

[104]

- Decreased the activity of HMG-CoA reductase.

- Prevents lipid accumulation in liver.

Insulin resistant (fa/fa) Zucker rats (infused CGA 5 mg/Kg body weight/day)

- Fasting plasma cholesterol and triacylglycerols concentrations were significantly decreased.

[103]

Golden hamsters (80 mg CGA/kg body weight daily given peritonially)

- Lowered fasting serum triglyceride (TG), free fatty acid (FFA), total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), glucose (FSG), and insulin (FSI).

[127]

- Increased hepatic lipase (HL), lower contents of TG and FFA in liver and lower activity of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) in skeletal muscle.

- Elevated the expression level of mRNA and protein expression in hepatic PPAR-α.

High Cholesterol diet fed Sprague–Dawley rats (1 or 10 mg/kg/day p.o. CGA)

- Lowered total cholesterol, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein and low-density lipoprotein.

[128]

- Up-regulated of peroxisome proliferation-activated receptor α mRNA in liver.