Maternal blood | Cord blood | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control group (n = 26) | Intervention group (n = 25) | p-value | Control group (n = 68) | Intervention group (n = 64) | p-value | |
Maternal anthropometry and blood parameters | ||||||
Maternal BMI (kg/m2) | 24.34 ± 4.40 | 26.36 ± 5.33 [1] | NS | 25.38 ± 4.27 | 26.24 ± 4.36 [1] | NS |
Maternal age (years) | 33.37 ± 5.73 | 32.30 ± 6.89 | NS | 33.00 ± 5.04 | 32.45 ± 6.31 | NS |
Gestational weight gain (kg) | 13.20 ± 4.06 [7] | 12.18 ± 4.74 [7] | NS | 13.20 ± 4.59 [13] | 12.40 ± 4.69 [16] | NS |
Fasting glucose, 13th week (mmol/l) | 4.50 ± 0.40 [1] | 4.40 ± 0.50 | NS | 4.50 ± 0.40 [4] | 4.50 ± 0.40 [2] | NS |
Fasting glucose, 28th week (mmol/l) | 4.60 ± 0.42 [2] | 4.50 ± 0.30 | NS | 4.50 ± 0.60 [3] | 4.50 ± 0.50 [2] | NS |
Total cholesterol, 13th week (mmol/l) | 4.77 ± 0.92 [9] | 4.81 ± 1.01 [8] | NS | 4.76 ± 1.06 [28] | 5.25 ± 1.32 [25] | 0.072 |
Total cholesterol, 28th week (mmol/l) | 6.31 ± 1.30 [8] | 6.39 ± 1.06 [9] | NS | 6.16 ± 1.13 [26] | 6.46 ± 1.30 [24] | NS |
HDL cholesterol, 13th week (mmol/l) | 0.80 ± 0.26 [9] | 0.93 ± 0.38 [8] | NS | 0.78 ± 0.28 [28] | 0.87 ± 0.40 [25] | NS |
HDL cholesterol, 28th week (mmol/l) | 0.97 ± 0.32 [8] | 1.04 ± 0.34 [9] | NS | 0.93 ± 0.39 [26] | 1.02 ± 0.40 [24] | NS |
LDL cholesterol, 13th week (mmol/l) | 3.35 ± 0.64 [9] | 3.45 ± 1.03 [8] | NS | 3.34 ± 0.89 [28] | 3.64 ± 0.90 [25] | NS |
LDL cholesterol, 28th week (mmol/l) | 4.71 ± 1.40 [8] | 4.62 ± 1.22 [9] | NS | 4.26 ± 1.33 [26] | 4.75 ± 1.23 [24] | NS |
LDL cholesterol, difference 28th - 13th week (mmol/l) | 0.83 ± 1.47 [9] | 1.06 ± 0.60 [9] | NS | 0.98 ± 1.17 [29] | 1.01 ± 0.83 [27] | NS |
Maternal diet | ||||||
Daily energy intake T1 (kcal) | 1803.28 ± 357.75 [4] | 1873.09 ± 420.48 [5] | NS | 1876.03 ± 506.89 [10] | 1793.15 ± 467.24 [13] | NS |
Daily energy intake T2 (kcal) | 1839.30 ± 279.74 [4] | 1775.72 ± 532.19 [4] | NS | 1932.25 ± 434.53 [10] | 1759.49 ± 534.65 [11] | 0.085 |
Daily energy intake T3 (kcal) | 1915.07 ± 334.97 [4] | 1800.89 ± 450.74 [3] | NS | 2022.50 ± 494.67 [10] | 1768.26 ± 473.59 [10] | 0.027 |
Daily GI T1 | 57.10 ± 6.76 [4] | 57.09 ± 3.57 [6] | NS | 57.13 ± 5.45 [11] | 56.98 ± 4.38 [14] | NS |
Daily GI T2 | 58.52 ± 2.99 [4] | 55.25 ± 2.95 [6] | 0.004 | 57.66 ± 3.93 [11] | 55.65 ± 3.42 [14] | 0.001 |
Daily GI T3 | 58.60 ± 3.97 [4] | 56.61 ± 3.72 [6] | NS | 57.76 ± 4.83 [11] | 56.15 ± 4.21 [14] | NS |
Total fat intake T1 (g) | 71.35 ± 22.41 [4] | 70.32 ± 26.29 [5] | NS | 76.10 ± 22.08 [10] | 72.13 ± 25.26 [13] | NS |
Saturated fat intake T1 (g) | 30.26 ± 11.38 [4] | 27.74 ± 11.65 [5] | NS | 31.12 ± 10.23 [10] | 27.35 ± 14.41 [13] | 0.057 |
Monounsaturated fat intake T1 (g) | 22.59 ± 7.08 [4] | 23.26 ± 6.53 [5] | NS | 23.81 ± 6.42 [10] | 23.91 ± 7.22 [13] | NS |
Polyunsaturated fat intake T1 (g) | 10.87 ± 6.05 [4] | 10.73 ± 5.37 [5] | NS | 10.87 ± 5.65 [10] | 10.80 ± 5.11 [13] | NS |
Total fat intake T2 (g) | 71.80 ± 13.20 [4] | 70.49 ± 26.74 [4] | NS | 75.01 ± 24.54 [10] | 70.25 ± 25.53 [11] | 0.077 |
Saturated fat intake T2 (g) | 26.97 ± 10.95 [4] | 24.51 ± 8.20 [4] | NS | 29.56 ± 10.96 [10] | 24.51 ± 11.56 [11] | 0.019 |
Monounsaturated fat intake T2 (g) | 21.91 ± 4.80 [4] | 22.75 ± 7.53 [4] | NS | 23.34 ± 8.38 [10] | 22.63 ± 8.73 [11] | NS |
Polyunsaturated fat intake T2 (g) | 11.39 ± 5.60 [4] | 10.79 ± 6.03 [4] | NS | 12.23 ± 5.41 [10] | 10.55 ± 4.76 [11] | NS |
Total fat intake T3 (g) | 75.28 ± 22.81 [4] | 73.48 ± 30.10 [3] | NS | 79.31 ± 22.91 [10] | 70.82 ± 29.12 [10] | NS |
Saturated fat intake T3 (g) | 28.49 ± 10.77 [4] | 29.32 ± 18.93 [3] | NS | 29.92 ± 12.11 [10] | 26.37 ± 13.87 [10] | NS |
Monounsaturated fat intake T3 (g) | 23.33 ± 6.30 [4] | 24.43 ± 8.99 [3] | NS | 25.56 ± 7.54 [10] | 21.56 ± 10.81 [10] | NS |
Polyunsaturated fat intake T3 (g) | 10.17 ± 5.23 [4] | 13.01 ± 5.69 [3] | NS | 12.04 ± 5.32 [10] | 11.34 ± 5.36 [10] | NS |
Total fat intake T1 (%kcal) | 0.37 ± 0.09 [4] | 0.34 ± 0.06 [5] | NS | 0.38 ± 0.07 [10] | 0.35 ± 0.08 [13] | NS |
Saturated fat intake T1 (%kcal) | 14.76 ± 5.36 [4] | 13.49 ± 4.31 [5] | NS | 15.16 ± 4.63 [10] | 13.55 ± 4.09 [13] | NS |
Monounsaturated fat intake T1 (%kcal) | 11.68 ± 3.59 [4] | 11.20 ± 2.93 [5] | NS | 11.76 ± 3.14 [10] | 11.34 ± 3.75 [13] | NS |
Polyunsaturated fat intake T1 (%kcal) | 5.71 ± 2.18 [4] | 5.31 ± 1.74 [5] | NS | 5.64 ± 1.92 [10] | 5.09 ± 2.33 [13] | NS |
Total fat intake T2 (%kcal) | 0.36 ± 0.06 [4] | 0.36 ± 0.06 [4] | NS | 0.36 ± 0.07 [10] | 0.35 ± 0.06 [11] | NS |
Saturated fat intake T2 (%kcal) | 13.39 ± 3.91 [4] | 12.93 ± 4.72 [4] | NS | 13.60 ± 3.87 [10] | 12.56 ± 4.36 [11] | NS |
Monounsaturated fat intake T2 (%kcal) | 11.21 ± 2.81 [4] | 10.76 ± 2.78 [4] | NS | 11.57 ± 2.56 [10] | 10.90 ± 3.14 [11] | NS |
Polyunsaturated fat intake T2 (%kcal) | 5.63 ± 1.86 [4] | 5.93 ± 1.86 [4] | NS | 5.57 ± 1.91 [10] | 5.48 ± 1.97 [11] | NS |
Total fat intake T3 (%kcal) | 0.36 ± 0.06 [4] | 0.36 ± 0.04 [3] | NS | 0.36 ± 0.06 [10] | 0.36 ± 0.06 [10] | NS |
Saturated fat intake T3 (%kcal) | 13.50 ± 4.34 [4] | 14.10 ± 4.27 [3] | NS | 13.73 ± 4.00 [10] | 13.24 ± 3.76 [10] | NS |
Monounsaturated fat intake T3 (%kcal) | 11.36 ± 2.62 [4] | 11.60 ± 2.67 [3] | NS | 11.39 ± 2.07 [10] | 11.33 ± 2.72 [10] | NS |
Polyunsaturated fat intake T3 (%kcal) | 5.52 ± 1.91 [4] | 5.93 ± 1.61 [3] | NS | 5.43 ± 2.07 [10] | 5.59 ± 1.63 [10] | NS |
New-born anthropometry | ||||||
Gestational age (days) | 280 ± 10.00 [1] | 284 ± 8.00 | 0.022 | 282 ± 12.25 | 284 ± 10.00 | 0.048 |
Child sex - female | 17 (65%) | 11 (44%) | NS | 39 (57%) | 30 (47%) | NS |
Birth weight (g) | 3860 ± 460.00 | 4090 ± 480.00 | NS | 3995 ± 532.50 | 4105 ± 550.00 | NS |
Birth length (cm) | 52.00 ± 3.00 [6] | 52.75 ± 1.88 [7] | NS | 52.50 ± 2.75 [13] | 53.00 ± 3.00 [15] | NS |
Birth ponderal index (100 g/cm3) | 2.60 ± 0.28 [6] | 2.81 ± 0.50 [7] | NS | 2.73 ± 0.44 [13] | 2.70 ± 0.41 [15] | NS |