Table 1 Fat-soluble vitamins interactions with an array of signalling pathways at different cellular contexts

Vitamin A

Hindbrain area

Upregulates the transcription factor Hoxa1 → segmentation and patterning of the hindbrain area

[20, 21]

Hepatic and colon cancer cells

Modulates the Expression of NKG2D Ligands → improving the targeting of tumor cells

[30]

Extracellular matrix

Influences the expression of collagens, laminins, entactin, fibronectin, elastin and proteoglycans

[22]

Hematopoietic stem cells

Regulates hematopoietic Stem Cell Dormancy → production of mature blood cells in bone marrow

[31]

Immune cells

Contributes in immune cells maturation → improving immunity (anti-infective effect)

[23]

Antigen presenting cells

Regulates antigen presenting cells → affecting immune regulation

[32]

Spermatocytes

Inhibits spermatocytes apoptosis in early meiotic stages → survival of germ-cells and spermatogenesis

[33]

Vitamin D

Cell involved in inflammatory responses (neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, and mast cells)

Downregulates COX-1 and COX-2 expression → affecting inflammatory response pathway

[34, 35]

Ovarian cancer

Downregulates the telomerase enzyme → promoting cell apoptosis

[36]

Ovarian cancer

Controls the expression of different regulatory molecules (HIF1a, p53, MYC, Ras, MAPK, BRCA1, and GADD45) → cell cycle arrest

[34]

NSCLC

Interfering with HIF-1α/ VEGF axis → angiogenesis inhibition (antitumor effect)

[37]

Spermatocytes

Increasing intracellular calcium concentration → mediating sperm motility

[38, 39]

Male sex organs

Improves testosterone levels and erectile function

[40]

GIT

Alteration in fecal microflora

[41, 42]

Vitamin E

Cells expressing Fatty acids translocase (FAT)/CD36 (platelets, mononuclear phagocytes, hepatocytes, adipocytes, myocytes, and some epithelia)

Modulates Fatty acids translocase (FAT)/CD36 scavenger receptor → Anti-oxidant activity

[43,44,45,46]

T cell

Promotes IL-2 production → boostering T cell dividing capability (immunostimulant)

[47]

Liver

Oxidized to α-TQ → lipotoxicity plasma biomarker in fatty liver subjects

[48, 49]

GM in the intestine

Reduces the abundance of Lactobacillaceae and Bacteroides → affecting GM

[50]

Vitamin K

Endoplasmic reticulum of mammalian cells

Acts as a cofactor for the enzyme gamma glutamate carboxylase (GGCX) → regulates coagulation

[51]

Vascular endothelial cells

Regulates calcification of vascular endothelial cells → increasing the risk of stroke and blood clots

[52]

Brain cell membranes

Participates in sphingolipids biosynthesis → development of central nervous system (CNS) by participating in sphingolipids biosynthesis → they are essential component of the brain cell membranes

[53, 54]

GM in the intestine

Affects the GM profile → decreasing the risk of colorectal cancer (anti-carcinogenic effect)

[55]