From: Gut microbiome and stages of diabetes in middle-aged adults: CARDIA microbiome study
Overall (n = 605) n(%)/M(SD) | Stages of diabetes (n = 605) | pg | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Normal | Pre-diabetes | Diabetes without treatment | Diabetes with treatment | |||
(n = 417, 68.9%) | (n = 101, 16.7%) | (n = 31, 5.1%) | (n = 56, 9.3%) | |||
n (%)/M(SD) | n(%)/M(SD) | n(%)/M(SD) | n(%)/M(SD) | |||
1. Diabetes-related variables | ||||||
Fasting glucose (mg/dL)a | 100.2 (24.8) | 91.9 (7.7) | 107.5 (6.1) | 130.5 (47.1) | 131.7 (53.5) | < 0.01 |
HOMA-insulin resistancea,b | 2.9 (2.3) | 2.2 (1.5) | 3.8 (2.4) | 5.0 (2.9) | 5.4 (3.8) | < 0.01 |
Diabetes duration, median (IQR)c | 5 (5–10) | N/A | N/A | 5 (5–10) | 10 (5–10) | N/A |
Metformin use (%) | 43 (7.1) | N/A | N/A | N/A | 43 (76.8) | N/A |
2. Socio-demographics | ||||||
Agea | 55.2 (3.5) | 55.1 (3.4) | 55.4 (3.5) | 54.9 (4.4) | 55.8 (3.6) | 0.32 |
Male (%) | 272 (45.0) | 168 (40.3) | 63 (62.4) | 18 (58.1) | 23 (41.1) | 0.30 |
Black race (%) | 275 (45.5) | 167 (40.0) | 50 (49.5) | 16 (51.6) | 42 (75.0) | < 0.01 |
Highest education (%) | 0.36 | |||||
High school or less | 206 (34.1) | 132 (31.7) | 39 (38.6) | 14 (45.2) | 21 (37.5) | |
College | 261 (43.1) | 181 (43.4) | 40 (39.6) | 14 (45.2) | 26 (46.4) | |
Graduate school | 138 (22.8) | 104 (24.9) | 22 (21.8) | 3 (9.6) | 9 (16.1) | |
Field center (%) | 0.72 | |||||
Birmingham, AL | 98 (16.2) | 69 (16.5) | 17 (16.8) | 4 (12.9) | 8 (14.3) | |
Chicago, IL | 295 (48.8) | 194 (46.5) | 51 (50.5) | 16 (51.6) | 34 (60.7) | |
Minneapolis, MN | 110 (18.2) | 77 (18.5) | 18 (17.8) | 6 (19.4) | 9 (16.1) | |
Oakland, CA | 102 (16.8) | 77 (18.5) | 15 (14.9) | 5 (16.1) | 5 (8.9) | |
3. Clinical measuresa | ||||||
BMI | 29.4 (6.2) | 28.1 (5.8) | 31.6 (6.0) | 31.9 (3.6) | 33.4 (7.3) | < 0.01 |
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 119.3 (16.1) | 117.2 (15.7) | 124.1 (14.5) | 124.8 (16.4) | 123.5 (18.5) | < 0.01 |
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 72.9 (11.0) | 71.5 (11.0) | 76.8 (9.6) | 77.3 (10.9) | 74.2 (11.2) | < 0.01 |
4. Health behavior | ||||||
Current smoker (%) | 81 (13.4) | 42 (10.1) | 18 (17.8) | 12 (38.7) | 9 (16.1) | < 0.01 |
Alcohol use (%) | 469 (77.5) | 318 (76.3) | 86 (85.1) | 26 (83.9) | 39 (69.6) | 0.29 |
Physical activity, median (IQR)d | 267 (128–504) | 280 (144–536) | 276 (116–510) | 300 (120–426) | 170 (82.5–332.5) | < 0.01 |
5. Medication use (%) | ||||||
Proton pump inhibitor | 47 (7.8) | 23 (5.5) | 12 (11.9) | 4 (12.9) | 8 (14.3) | < 0.05 |
Lipid-lowering | 123 (20.3) | 67 (16.1) | 19 (18.8) | 6 (19.4) | 31 (55.4) | < 0.01 |
High blood pressure | 180 (29.8) | 91 (21.8) | 37 (36.6) | 15 (48.4) | 37 (66.1) | < 0.01 |
6. Diet quality score (standardized), median (IQR)e | − 0.07 (− 0.70 to 0.70) | − 0.06 (− 0.68 to 0.85) | − 0.37 (− 0.99 to 0.39) | − 0.62 (− 0.99 to 0.16) | − 0.37 (− 0.84 to 0.24) | < 0.01 |