Table 1 Baseline characteristics of the study population according to MH/MU and fatty liver status (N = 6260)

No. of participants, n (%)

1382 (22.1)

2919 (46.6)

63 (1.0)

1896 (30.3)

 < 0.0001

Age (years)

54.7 ± 8.4

59.0 ± 8.7

53.6 ± 6.5

58.0 ± 8.2

 < 0.0001

Male sex, n (%)

545 (39.4)

995 (34.1)

36 (57.1)

688 (36.3)

 < 0.0001

High school and above, n (%)

353 (25.5)

511 (17.5)

19 (30.2)

374 (19.7)

 < 0.0001

Current drinking, n (%)

310 (22.4)

516 (17.7)

22 (34.9)

366 (19.3)

 < 0.0001

Current smoking, n (%)

366 (26.5)

596 (20.4)

27 (42.9)

422 (22.3)

 < 0.0001

Vigorous activity ≥ 75 min/week or moderate-vigorous ≥ 150 min/week, n (%)

203 (14.7)

457 (15.7)

11 (17.5)

343 (18.1)

0.0454

Hypertension, n (%)

353 (25.5)

1921 (65.8)

15 (23.8)

1407 (74.2)

 < 0.0001

Anti-hypertensive medications, n (%)

118 (8.6)

876 (30.0)

5 (8.1)

790 (41.6)

 < 0.0001

Type 2 diabetes, n (%)

0 (0)

516 (17.7)

0 (0)

691 (36.5)

 < 0.0001

Anti-diabetic medications or insulin, n (%)

0 (0)

234 (8.0)

0 (0)

224 (11.8)

 < 0.0001

Dyslipidemia, n (%)

210 (15.2)

1239 (42.5)

17 (27.0)

1179 (62.2)

 < 0.0001

Lipid lowering medications, n (%)

0 (0)

7 (0.2)

0 (0)

7 (0.4)

0.1665

Body mass index (kg/m²)

22.8 ± 2.3

24.9 ± 2.8

25.3 ± 2.0

27.6 ± 3.0

 < 0.0001

Waist circumference (cm)

75.6 ± 6.5

81.9 ± 7.5

82.8 ± 5.7

89.2 ± 7.7

 < 0.0001

SBP (mmHg)

127.7 ± 17.2

144.2 ± 18.5

128.6 ± 15.9

147.1 ± 19.0

 < 0.0001

DBP (mmHg)

77.6 ± 9.4

83.9 ± 9.8

80.0 ± 8.6

86.1 ± 10.1

 < 0.0001

PP (mmHg)

50.1 ± 12.8

60.4 ± 15.4

48.6 ± 10.3

61.0 ± 16.1

 < 0.0001

Fasting plasma glucose (mg/dL)

87.8 ± 8.0

99.4 ± 24.0

89.3 ± 9.0

110.4 ± 35.5

 < 0.0001

Postprandial plasma glucose (mg/dL)

103.9 ± 23.8

146.4 ± 72.7

110.6 ± 28.5

185.3 ± 91.8

 < 0.0001

HbA1c (%)

5.4 ± 0.3

5.8 ± 0.8

5.5 ± 0.3

6.2 ± 1.2

 < 0.0001

HOMA-IR

1.0 (0.7–1.4)

1.5 (1.1–2.2)

1.4 (1.0–1.9)

2.6 (1.8–3.8)

 < 0.0001

Triglycerides (mg/dL)

86.7 (68.1–111.5)

123.9 (90.3–169.0)

105.3 (84.1–125.7)

167.3 (121.2–232.3)

 < 0.0001

LDL-C (mg/dL)

114.0 ± 28.6

126.2 ± 33.6

123.3 ± 31.0

128.2 ± 35.3

 < 0.0001

HDL-C (mg/dL)

57.9 ± 11.0

50.8 ± 12.3

54.6 ± 11.5

46.4 ± 10.4

 < 0.0001

Total cholesterol (mg/dL)

196.8 ± 33.2

208.1 ± 38.7

204.8 ± 35.8

213.2 ± 42.2

 < 0.0001

ALT (IU)

15.6 (12.3–20.8)

17.1 (13.4–22.5)

19.2 (15.0–25.9)

23.8 (17.6–34.7)

 < 0.0001

AST (IU)

20.9 (18.0–24.8)

21.1 (18.2–24.7)

22.0 (17.3–25.5)

22.4 (19.1–27.6)

 < 0.0001

GGT (IU)

16.0 (12.0–24.0)

20.0 (14.0–29.0)

26.0 (15.0–48.0)

30.0 (21.0–47.5)

 < 0.0001

BaPWV (cm/s)

1419.6 ± 284.9

1634.8 ± 350.3

1426.5 ± 218.5

1678.1 ± 357.7

 < 0.0001

UACR (mg/g)

4.0 (2.4–6.6)

4.8 (2.8–8.8)

3.6 (2.4–5.1)

5.9 (3.2–11.9)

 < 0.0001