Table 2 A summary of the impact of RV on AD cases from human and animal systematic reviews analyzed in this umbrella review [56,57,58,59,60,61]

Human studies

Potential impact on BBB traversal, cognitive function improvement and metabolism in mild AD, and AD biomarkers reduction

[56]

Mitigation of MMSE and ADCS-ADL decline in AD patients

[60]

Reduction in CSF Aβ40, Aβ42, and serum Aβ40 in AD individuals

[58]

Improving brain volume, reducing MMSE scores, significant improvements in clinical indicators and ADAS-cog scores, and showing less deterioration in ADAS-cog, ADCS-ADL, and NPI scores

[61]

Animal studies

Protective effects against memory loss, cognitive enhancement, and reduction of AD-related markers

[57, 59]

Reduced anxiety levels, lowered Aβ and p-tau in hippocampus of AD model mice

[57, 59]

Activation of AMPK, reduced inflammation in rat astrocytes and microglia

[57, 59, 68]

Reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines, ROS, neural repair in AD models

[70, 71]

Decreased hyperphosphorylated tau, SIRT1 reactivation in animal models, significant reductions in Aβ burden, and sustained BBB integrity in RV-fed mice

[57]