Table 3 Effect of hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives on diabetes

Cinnamic acid

TNF-α-treated insulin-resistant mouse FL83B hepatocytes.

- Increased expression of glycogen synthase, whereas the expression of glycogen synthase kinase and phosphorylation of glycogen synthase at Ser641 in insulin-resistant mouse hepatocytes was decreased.

[111]

STZ-induced diabetic Wistar Albino rats

- Improved glucose tolerance and carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes,

[13]

Ferulic acid

STZ-induced diabetic mice (0.01 and 0.1 % FA of diet)

- Decreased elevated blood glucose level

[14]

KK-A^y mice (0.05 % FA of Diet)

- Suppress blood glucose level

[14]

C57BL/KsJ db/db mice

- Decreased blood glucose level by increasing glycogen synthesis. Increased glucokinase activity.

[112]

Streptozotocin induced diabetes rats

- Prevents lipid peroxidation and improved the antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT)

[114]

Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty (OLETF) diabetic rats (0.2 % FA in diet)

- Improved

Male C57BL/6 N mice (0.5 % FA of diet)

- Lower blood glucose level and glucose-6-phosphatase (G6pase) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) activities.

[113]

Stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRsp) (0 · 01 g/kg FA of diet)

- Improved hypertension as well as glucose tolerance, plasma nitric oxide (NOx). Also increased several mRNA expressions of metabolic parameters involved in glucose and lipid metabolisms

[129]

- high-fat and fructose-induced type 2 diabetic adult male rats

- FA treatment to diabetic animals restored blood glucose, serum insulin, glucose tolerance, and insulin tolerance to normal range.

- Hepatic glycogen concentration, activity of glycogen synthase, and glucokinase were significantly increased, whereas activity of glycogen phosphorylase and enzymes of gluconeogenesis (phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) and glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase)) were decreased in diabetic animals due to FA treatment

[130]

- FA (50 mg/(kg body weight · day)(−1), orally) for 30 days

- high-fat and fructose-induced type 2 diabetic adult male rats

- Authors suggested that FA treatment reduced the GLUT2 expression in diabetic animals by impairing the interaction between these transcription factors (SREBP1c, HNF1α and HNF3β) and GLUT2 gene promoter.

[131]

- FA (50 mg/(kg body weight · day)(−1), orally) for 30 days

Caffeic acid

C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice

- Reduction of the blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels. Caffeic acid also markedly increased glucokinase activity and its mRNA expression and glycogen content and simultaneously lowered glucose-6-phosphatase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase activities and their respective mRNA expressions, accompanied by a reduction in the glucose transporter 2 expression in the liver

[115]

Streptozotocin induced diabetes rats

- Improved lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzyme status in liver of rats

[132]

Mouse liver FL83B cells

- Tumor necrosis factor-α was used to induce insulin resistance. may promote insulin receptor tyrosyl phosphorylation, up-regulate the expression of insulin signal associated proteins, including insulin receptor, phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase, glycogen synthase, and glucose transporter-2, increase the uptake of glucose, and alleviate insulin resistance

[118]

TNF-α-treated insulin-resistant mouse FL83B hepatocytes.

- Increased expression of glycogen synthase, whereas the expression of glycogen synthase kinase and phosphorylation of glycogen synthase at Ser641 in insulin-resistant mouse hepatocytes was decreased.

- Also suppressed the expression of hepatic nuclear factor-4 and activity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase

[111]

High fat diet in male BLTW: CD1(ICR) mice

- Improved the glucose intolearance and normalized plasma insulin, adiponectin.

- also suppress TNF-alpha, PEPCK and increased GLUT4

[119]

L6-GLUT4myc cells

- Increased glucose uptake and GLUT4 translocation to the cell membrane of L6-GLUT4myc cells.

- Increased phosphorylation of AMPK and increased GLUT4 content

[120]

Streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats

- Phoshoenolpyruvate carboxykinase mRNA expression was decreased.

- Decreased the fasting blood levels of glucose, alanine aminotransferase, cholesterol, and triglyceride induced by diabetes.

- increased expressions of glucokinase and pyruvate kinase mRNAs and increased the liver glycogen level.

[116]

Swiss mice fed high fat diet

- Improved glucose intolerance in high fat diet fed mice.

- Improvement in insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of the insulin receptor substrate-2, followed by an increase in Akt phosphorylation.

- Reduced the induction of the inflammatory pathway, c-jun-N- terminal kinase, the nuclear factor kappa B, and cyclooxygenase-2 expression.

[117]

Male Sprague–Dawley rats

- Increased the phosphorylation of AMPKα Thr172 in skeletal muscle.

- AMPKα2 activity increased significantly, whereas AMPKα1 activity did not change.

[133]

Male Balb/cA mice (2.5 % CFA of Diet)

- Increased plasma insulin and decreased blood glucose and plasma HbA1c levels.

- Lowered renal levels of IL-6, IL-1b, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) and decreased TNF alpha and MCP-1 mRNA expression.

[11]

Chlorogenic acid

db/db mice

- Improved the fasting blood glucose level.

- Stimulates glucose transport in skeletal muscle via the GLUT 4 translocation and phosphorylation of AMPK and Akt.

[121]

Male Sprague–Dawley rats (CGA (120 mg · kg–1)

- Improved glucose metabolism as seen in decreased AUC.

[134]