Table 1 The cardioprotective effect of rooibos, its flavonoids and a phenylpropenoic acid

Rooibos

Aqueous extract of fermented rooibos on cardiomyocytes isolated from diabetic rats

Prevented experimentally induced oxidative stress and ischemia

[21]

Fermented rooibos tea for 6 weeks in human subjects at risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD)

Reduced CVD risk by improving lipid profile and redox status

[59]

Aqueous extract of fermented rooibos in endothelial cells from human umbilical veins (HUVECs)

Prevented vascular-induced inflammation by enhancing nitric oxide production

[86, 92, 93]

Aqueous extract of fermented rooibos on non-diabetic rats

Acted as a bronchodilator, antispasmodic and blood pressure lowering effects

[97]

Fermented rooibos tea in healthy human subjects

Prevented myocardial infarction by inhibiting angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)

[98,99,100]

Aqueous extracts of fermented and unfermented rooibos in non-diabetic rats

Reversed ischemia-reperfusion injury

[101]

Aspalathin and nothofagin

Aspalathin and nothofagin on high glucose-induced vascular in HUVECs and mice

Prevented inflammation and thrombosis by suppressing TNF-α, IL-6 and NF-κB

[118, 119]

Aspalathin in H9c2 cardiomyocytes exposed to high glucose and cardiomyocytes isolated from insulin resistant rats

Prevented cell apoptosis by reducing phosphorylation of AMPK; decreasing inflammation and lipid accumulation; and attenuated oxidative damage via increasing Nrf2 expression

[73, 124,125,126]

Orientin and isoorientin

Orientin on isolated hearts of nondiabetic rats, rabbits and guinea pigs as well as H9c2 cells

Prevented ischemia-reperfusion injury and platelet aggregation by inhibiting mPTP formation and apoptosis

[137,138,139]

Orientin and isoorientin

Orientin on rats

Prevented myocardial infarction

[134]

Isoorientin in low density lipoprotein isolated from human plasma

Prevented formation of atherosclerotic lesions by inhibiting low density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation

[135]

Orientin in non-diabetic rats

Attenuated ventricular remodeling associated with myocardial infarction

[136]

Orientin and isoorientin in lipopolysaccharide-induced reperfusion injury

Protected vascular barrier integrity by inhibiting hyperpermeability

[223]

Vitexin and isovitexin

Vitexin on primary cardiomyocytes and isolated rat hearts and on rats

Prevented ischemia-reperfusion injury by reducing calcium overload and modulating ERK1/2 signaling and MAPK pathway

[146, 149, 224]

Vitexin on primary rat cardiomyocytes

Prevented cardiac hypertrophy by inhibiting calcineurin and CaMKII signaling pathways

[151]

Vitexin on dogs

Reduced aortic pressure, arterial and pulmonary capillary pressure and heart rate

[150, 225]

Vitexin on rats

Attenuated acute doxorubicin cardiotoxicity by reducing oxidative stress and apoptosis

[226]

Luteolin and chrysoeriol

Luteolin on isolated rat cardiomyocytes, rabbit hearts and anesthetized pigs

Prevented ischemia-reperfusion injury and enhanced relative coronary flow

[157, 159, 162]

Luteolin on rat endothelium-denuded aortic rings

Induced vasorelaxion by regulating calcium and potassium channels and reducing oxidative stress

[227]

Luteolin on vascular smooth muscle cells and rats

Prevented hypertensive vascular remodeling

[160]

Luteolin on diabetic and normal rats

Alleviated vascular complications associated with insulin resistance through the Pparγ pathway

[161]

Luteolin and chrysoeriol

Luteolin-7-glucoside on isolated primary rat cardiomyocytes

Prevented ischemia-reperfusion injury and increased of coronary flow

[228]

Chrysoeriol in rats under anesthesia and H9c2 cells

Reduced arterial blood pressure and protected against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity

[97, 172]

Quercetin and rutin

Quercetin on rats

Protected against diabetic cardiomyopathy, autoimmune myocarditis, LDL-oxidation, and doxorubicin-induced lipid peroxidation

[185,186,187,188,189,190,191,192]

Quercetin in either endothelial cells or rats

Presented antihypertensive potential and reduced cardiac hypertrophy by increasing antioxidant capacity

[229,230,231,232,233]

Hyperoside and rutin

Hyperoside in vitro and in vivo

Protected against hyperglycemia induced inflammation

[208]

Hyperoside in ECV304 cells

Prevented advanced glycation end products and promoted via the c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK) pathway

[205]

Hyperoxide in vitro and in vivo

Hydrogen peroxide induced cell damage and ischemia reperfusion injury

[209, 211, 212]

Rutin on rats

Protected against advanced glycation end products, oxidative stress and myocardial infarction

[199, 234, 235]

Phenylpyruvic acid-2-O-β-D-glucoside (PPAG)

PPAG on high-glucose exposed H9c2 cells

Protected against substrate impairment, mitochondrial depolarization and cell apoptosis

[221]