Table 1 Subject characteristics, insulin sensitivity, and β-cell function at baseline and after treatment

Number (n)

19

–

–

18

–

–

–

–

Sex (male/female)

12/7

–

–

12/6

–

–

–

–

Age

47.6 ± 2.5

–

–

48.3 ± 2.3

–

–

–

–

Diabetes duration

7.0 ± 1.2

–

–

4.4 ± 0.7

–

–

–

–

Weight (kg)

80.8 ± 2.4

77.3 ± 2.4

< 0.001

75.1 ± 1.8

76.0 ± 1.8

0.048

− 4.5 (− 6.3 to − 2.7)

< 0.001

BMI (kg/m²)

28.1 ± 0.5

26.9 ± 0.5

< 0.001

27.0 ± 0.6

27.3 ± 0.5

0.048

−1.6 (− 2.2 to − 0.9)

< 0.001

Waist circumference (cm)

96.5 ± 1.5

93.5 ± 1.6

0.012

93.9 ± 1.7

93.4 ± 1.7

0.361

−2.6 (− 5.0 to − 0.1)

0.070

SBP (mmHg)

119.4 ± 3.5

120.9 ± 3.2

0.600

114.7 ± 2.9

118.3 ± 3.9

0.329

−2.1 (− 11.3 to 7.0)

0.943

DBP (mmHg)

77.7 ± 1.9

79.8 ± 1.5

0.293

77.2 ± 2.0

74.2 ± 2.2

0.205

5.2 (−1.0 to 11.3)

0.034

ALT (U/L)

31.8 ± 4.3

31.0 ± 4.1

0.825

36.8 ± 4.8

29.5 ± 3.8

0.035

6.5 (− 3.3 to 16.3)

0.290

AST (U/L)

21.9 ± 2.2

21.4 ± 2.2

0.766

24.6 ± 2.1

22.6 ± 2.0

0.191

1.4 (− 3.1 to 5.9)

0.756

TG (mmol/L)

1.8 ± 0.2

1.6 ± 0.2

0.243

1.7 ± 0.2

1.5 ± 0.2

0.301

0.0 (− 0.5 to 0.5)

0.778

TC (mmol/L)

4.5 ± 0.3

4.1 ± 0.3

0.020

4.3 ± 0.2

4.3 ± 0.2

0.979

− 0.5 (− 1.0 to 0.1)

0.113

HDL-C (mmol/L)

1.0 ± 0.1

1.0 ± 0.1

0.176

1.0 ± 0.1

1.1 ± 0.1

0.107

− 0.2 (− 0.3 to 0.0)

0.040

LDL-C (mmol/L)

2.4 ± 0.2

2.1 ± 0.2

0.009

2.3 ± 0.1

2.3 ± 0.1

0.914

− 0.3 (− 0.7 to 0.0)

0.091

FBG (mmol/L)

8.7 ± 0.5

6.8 ± 0.4

0.002

9.0 ± 0.5

6.9 ± 0.4

< 0.001

0.2 (− 1.2 to 1.6)

0.978

30-min glucose (mmol/L)

10.8 ± 0.7

9.1 ± 0.9

0.070

12.1 ± 0.7

9.9 ± 0.6

0.001

0.5 (− 1.6 to 2.7)

0.867

60-min glucose (mmol/L)

14.1 ± 1.0

11.7 ± 1.1

0.087

14.8 ± 0.7

11.9 ± 0.5

< 0.001

0.5 (− 2.4 to 3.4)

0.976

120-min glucose (mmol/L)

13.3 ± 0.9

11.7 ± 0.8

0.101

14.0 ± 1.0

12.3 ± 0.9

0.123

0.0 (− 2.8 to 2.8)

0.691

Fasting insulin (uIU/mL)

10.1 ± 1.3

10.1 ± 1.7

0.984

11.0 ± 1.0

10.0 ± 1.9

0.616

1.1 (−4.3 to 6.5)

0.822

30 min insulin (uIU/mL)

19.5 ± 3.0

17.8 ± 3.9

0.593

19.2 ± 2.2

23.8 ± 5.0

0.345

−6.3 (− 17.6 to 5.0)

0.272

60 min insulin (uIU/mL)

28.7 ± 5.1

33.8 ± 8.8

0.489

33.2 ± 3.7

36.2 ± 6.4

0.660

2.0 (− 18.2 to 22.2)

0.906

120 min insulin (uIU/mL)

34.8 ± 5.5

39.5 ± 8.8

0.414

40.6 ± 6.3

48.9 ± 8.9

0.357

− 3.6 (− 24.2 to 17.1)

0.692

1 / HOMA-IR (μIU/mL. mmol/L)

0.4 ± 0.1

0.5 ± 0.1

0.035

0.3 ± 0.0

0.5 ± 0.1

0.007

0.0 (− 0.3 to 0.2)

0.886

ISI_M (μIU/mL. mmol/L)

4.5 ± 0.7

7.1 ± 1.1

0.034

3.7 ± 0.6

5.3 ± 0.8

0.040

0.9 (− 1.9 to 3.8)

0.292

HOMA-β (IU/mol)

50.4 ± 9.9

124.4 ± 48.2

0.098

54.6 ± 10.9

87.5 ± 30.5

0.315

41.0 (− 68.8 to 150.8)

0.418

InsAUC30 / GluAUC30 (IU/mol)

11.9 ± 1.9

15.5 ± 3.3

0.106

11.3 ± 1.6

15.0 ± 3.2

0.225

0.0 (− 7.3 to 7.3)

0.977

InsAUC120 / GluAUC120 (IU/mol)

17.3 ± 3.2

22.3 ± 5.8

0.118

16.7 ± 2.9

22.6 ± 5.0

0.232

− 0.9 (− 11.9 to 10.1)

0.839

DI 30 (mmol/L. mmol/L)

42.5 ± 5.2

72.2 ± 12.4

0.012

35.0 ± 4.5

61.0 ± 6.7

< 0.001

3.8 (− 21.0 to 28.5)

0.869

DI 120 (mmol/L. mmol/L)

62.2 ± 9.5

100.6 ± 18.0

0.019

50.8 ± 7.1

90.2 ± 10.8

0.004

−1.0 (− 39.4 to 37.4)

0.992

HBA1c (%)

8.0 ± 0.2

6.8 ± 0.3

< 0.001

8.2 ± 0.2

7.1 ± 0.2

0.001

− 0.1 (− 0.7 to 0.6)

0.469